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Student work

EllieBrewster — Thu, 18 Jun 2009 07:51:58 CDT

Sydney Scientist, Disability: Prejudice, Perception and Revelation

Escher Brune, Correlations between Animal Cruelty and Abuse of Humans

Kaleyope Clip, The Grameen Bank

Emily Beerbaum, Wangari Maathai

Lyssa Hellershanks, One Laptop per Child

SarahSully Jolly, Violence Against Native Women

Violence Against Native Women

EllieBrewster — Thu, 18 Jun 2009 07:47:59 CDT

SarahSully Jolly

Violence against women is prevalent in the United States. The U.S. has over 200,000 attempted and completed rapes a year (Humphrey 214). Over a lifetime approximately 14.8 percent of women are raped or sexually assaulted (Basile, Chen, Black, & Saltzman 437). However, Native American women are sexually assaulted in their lifetime at a disproportionately higher rate than other ethnic groups; 75 percent report being sexually assaulted during their lifetime (Bhungalia). Native Americans do not only have a higher rate of sexual violence committed against them but also a higher rate of domestic violence and even a disproportionately higher rate of murder than any other racial group. As a society we need to ask why Native Americans, in particular women, experience an obscene amount of violence compared to other ethnic groups. The most prominent reason why Native Americans, as well as other ethnic minorities like the aboriginals of Australia, are the victims of these acts of violence is due to the discrimination that they face as a racial group. Discrimination leads to hatred, hatred by society leads to fewer resources for the despised racial group which results in fewer educational and occupational opportunities which continue to keep Native Americans at the lowest status in a hierarchical society dominated by white males. This leaves Native American women at the lowest status due to their intersectionality, meaning that they are discriminated against not simply because they are women or simply because they are Native American, but because they are both.

In order to understand the current status of the Native community, a closer look needs to be taken at their history with Europeans. The Europeans committed atrocious violent acts against Native Americans; this violence is what turned into discrimination against them as a race. According to Ramirez, Europeans "described Native Americans in racialized terms [such] as polluted and dirty, which encouraged violence against Indian women" (104). Even Peter H. Burnett, the governor of California in 1851, promoted the extinction of the Indian race; this open proclamation against the Native Americans is an example of the deeply rooted hatred felt against this community (104). While men were often, and still are, brutalized, women received just as much if not more abuse. An Indian woman's nakedness was "seen as impure and dirty [and therefore]...were sexually violable" (Waters, 10). Native Americans had no rights in this society dominated by whites who saw them as savage, as lowly as animals, which meant there were no consequences for those who raped or beat Native women or children. With a history of violence such as this, it is not surprising that Native Americans face unequivocally higher amounts of violence today.

In the United States crimes are generally committed against those of the same race, otherwise known as intraracial, opposed to those crimes committed against people of a different race, known as interracial; however, according to Humphrey, a prominent researcher on deviance, the Native population crimes are more likely to be committed interracially (2006, p. 67). Humphrey states that a Native American is assaulted by a non-Native American 70 percent of the time (67). Another interesting finding is that "when Native Americans are murdered, 4 in 10 times the offense is committed by someone of a different race" (67). Hate crimes due to discrimination of Native Americans can be the only explanation for the disproportionately higher rate of interracial violence. It is also the only reason why Indians are victimized "twice as often as all other residents of the United States" (67). Even violent acts against Indian women are committed by persons of a different race 70 percent of the time (Bhungalia). Native American women are violently brutalized more than black men (Humphrey, 67) and at "almost twice the rate of black women" (Dugan & Apel, 967). Native American women also face a wider variety of violence than their counterparts. Indian men face no educational opportunities, assault, murder, and occasionally sexual assault while women face all of the above and more. For example, many women face the threat of forced sterilization.

According to Waters, a prevalent researcher, the rate of forced sterilization on some reservations is 80 percent (10). In the narrative Lakota Woman, by Mary Crow Dog, Crow Dog's sister Barbara is sterilized without giving her consent and under false pretenses. Barbara is told she has to have a C-section, but after she awakes she is told that the doctors removed her uterus (78). This incident happened in the 1970s but Waters’ research took place in 2003, meaning that this type of violence is still happening in the Native American community. Incidents such as these give the Native American population reason not to trust white authorities.

Sexual assault is another type of violence where Native American women are targeted not just by men of their own race or white men but according to Crow Dog also by the authorities. Crow Dog states that police would arrest Indian girls and women under false allegations, such as being "drunk-and-disorderly... take them to the drunk tanks in their jails, and there rape them" (68). Authorities have also been accused of disregarding Native American women's statements of sexual assault as false when the women try to report it (Bhungalia). In general, it has been understood that women of all ethnicities may receive negative treatment or reactions when reporting sexual violence; however, "ethnic minority victims [report] more negative social reactions" than majority racial groups due to their heightened suspicion of authorities because of authorities prejudicial attitudes (Sarker & Sarker, 415). This type of negative treatment results in women, Native American women in particular, not disclosing sexual assaults to the authorities and it further encourages the Native community to continue to distrust white authorities (Bhungalia). This distrust only promotes the cycle of discrimination and hate which leads to more acts of violence.

Another demoralizing act of violence committed against Native American women is one that their own men commit against them; domestic violence. Domestic violence is very much a problem in the Native American population. According to a study done in the Southwestern United States in a Navajo community, 52.5 percent of the women there experienced "at least 1 episode of domestic violence by a male partner" (Fairchild, Fairchild, Wilson, & Stoner, 1515). An example of the prevalence of domestic violence is seen in Lakota Woman. Crow Dog describes another incident from her sister's life when the man she was living with "ripped off a two-by-four from the fence and used it on her” (245). Crow Dog explains that "for a little thing like that most Sioux women wouldn't leave their men" (245). Domestic violence is such a problem for this community, as it is for other minority communities as well, because not only do women have to encounter violence from those outside their ethnic group but have to face it from their counterparts as well.

According to Gloria Anzaldúa, a prominent feminist theorist, domestic violence is a result of what white society has done to minority men. White men have socialized all men to believe that in order to be considered a man one must be able to provide for their family; however, white society takes away all of the legal methods in which to do this. The Native American has no way to gain equal educational or occupational access that whites have in order to provide for their families. This inability to provide for their family and to be a man creates frustration which in turn "leads him to put women down and even brutalize them" in order to make the male feel that he has control over some aspect of his life (Humphreay, 173- 174). Out of this frustration Native American men also turn to alcohol or, sadly, commit suicide. Humphrey also believes that the high alcoholism rates among the Indian population are due to the "blockage to educational and occupational opportunities" (179). Also the suicide rate for this population tends to be "three or four times higher than any ethnic group" (123). Due to all of this abuse Native American women also turn to self medicating methods such as drugs and alcohol. According to Saylors and Daliparthy, somewhere "between 55 and 99% of [Indian] women with substance use disorders report being victimized at some point in life" (34).

Native Americans are not the only native minority people to be facing this type of brutalization from authorities and problems within their communities. The aboriginals of Australia are encountering many of the same types of obstacles as of the Native Americans. For instance, Australian aboriginals were invaded and colonized by the British as the Native Americans and "have their own distinctive histories, with the experience of colonization" (Taylor & Putt, 2). Even though "discriminatory legislation had been repealed across Australia by the end of the 1960s [it]... remains part of the living memories of many older Indigenous" peoples (2). They are also a community that faces a low socioeconomic status due to discrimination and social networks (3). The members of the Indigenous community have a disproportionately higher rate of incarceration than non-Indigenous members and sexual violence "is commonly perceived as endemic in some Indigenous communities and is frequently perpetrated by partners and family members" like that of the American Indians (3). Furthermore, the aboriginals are often brutalized through violence; a survey found that aboriginal women are three times more likely to be victims of sexual violence than non-aboriginal women (2). And lastly "the Indigenous community expressed distrust towards police" due to past bad experiences with the authorities (5). So while the Native Americans and Australian aboriginals may have differences, such as how they retaliated to colonization and what type of problems they are still facing today, they do have many similarities. By comparing these groups, one can see that violence against the natives of a land is due to the discrimination that is directed against these minorities to a higher degree than other minorities. Each of these groups, the Australian aboriginals and the American Indians, has the highest rates of violence perpetrated against them in their countries. Perhaps this is because the hate and discrimination against the Native Americans and Australian Aboriginals extends back to the beginnings of the invasion and colonization of the countries. This hatred has roots that go very deep in comparison to other racial minority groups. Whatever the reason the discrimination these peoples face on a daily basis should be a concern for society, in particularly feminists, because it affects not only women and children in the Native community but all people living in that society.

Violence against men, women, children, elderly, people of color, or homosexuals is of grave concern to feminists. Violence against the Native American community is no different. Little restricted access to education or jobs, assault, sexual assault, battery, domestic violence, and murder are prevalent in the Indian community and all arise from one thing; discrimination. But these violent acts do not stop there; this violence leads to more violence and even internal problems within the community. Due to these types of abuses, Native Americans internalize the idea that they are worthless which may lead to alcoholism, suicide, anxiety, or depression (Sarker & Sarker, 2005, p. 413). This is a great burden on the community and can only be stopped with the help of all. Through education of diversity and knowledge of these issues this type of violence can be ended with the help and cooperation of all society in order to make change.

Bibliography:

Anzaldúa, Gloria. (1987). La Conciencia de la Mestiza: Towards a New Consciousness, from Borderlands/ La Frontera: The New Mestiza. In Linder/ WS 367.01/ Winter 2008, Reading Women's Lives (167- 183). Boston, MA: Pearson Boston.

Basile, Kathleen C.; Chen, Jieru; Black, Michele C. & Saltzman, Linda E (2007). Prevalence and Characteristics of Sexual Violence Victimization Among U.S. Adults, 2001-2003. Violence & Victims, 22, 437-448.

Bhungalia, Lisa. (2008) Native American Women and Violence. National Organization for Women. Retrieved April 18, 2008, from http://www.now.org/nnt/spring- 2001/nativeamerican.html

Crow Dog, Mary. (1990). Lakota Woman. New York: Harper Perennial.

Dugan, Laura & Apel, Robert. (2003) An Exploratory Study of the Violent Victimization of Women: Race/ Ethnicity and Situational Context. Criminology, 41, 959-979.

Fairchild, David G., M.D., Fairchild, Molly Wilson, MS, & Stoner, Shirley. (1998). Prevalence of Adult Domestic Violence Among Women Seeking Routine Care in a Native American Health Care Facility. American. Journal of Public Health, 88, 1515- 1517.

Humphrey, John A. (2006). Deviant Behavior. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall_._
Ramirez, Renya. (2004). Healing, Violence, and Native American Women. Social Justice, 31, 103- 116.
Sarkar, N.& Sarkar, Rina. (2005). Sexual assault on woman: Its impact on her life and living in society. Sexual & Relationship Therapy, 20, 407- 419.

Saylors, Karen Ph.D. & Daliparthy, Nalini M.S., M.P.H. (2006). Violence Against Native Women In Substance Abuse Treatment. American Indian & Alaska Native Mental Health Research: The Journal of the National Center, 13, 32-51.

Natalie Taylor and Judy Putt. (2007). Adult Sexual Violence in Indigenous and Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Communities in Australia. Trends & Issues in Crime & Criminal Justice, 345, 1-6.

Waters, Anne. (2003). Introduction:Special Issue on 'Native American Women, Feminism, and Indigenism.' Hypatia, 18, 1-13.

One Laptop Per Child

EllieBrewster — Thu, 18 Jun 2009 07:39:40 CDT

One Laptop per Child Program and its Effects on Education in Impoverished Countries

Throughout the developed world there have been numerous attempts to improve the educational systems that are available to students in third world countries. It is widely accepted that improving a child's access to education has a direct effect on the future success of their country and region. One of the most recently developed programs trying to improve international education standards is Nicholas Negroponte's One Laptop per Child program (OLPC-Mission). Negroponte's program aims to give laptops to children in third world countries with the hope of broadening their horizons and giving them access to an entire world of material. However, as prevalent as youth education is, many still overlook the fact that young girls often do not receive the same educational opportunities as their male counterparts (UNICEF).

The OLPC program focuses its operation around the famed One Hundred Dollar Laptop or HDL. These computers have been specifically designed to withstand the harshest conditions, worst treatment, limited power supply and limited to no internet connectivity. Due to common technical difficulties and maintenance that isn't available to third world schools, the OLPC installs open interface software such as Linux on their HDL to limit the degree of upkeep the laptops will need. As well as needing very little upkeep, Linux software was chosen because it gives children the opportunity to design their own programs and build their own learning experiences- something not easily available to them through other operating systems (OLPC-Interface). Although an open source operating system is included, there is no other educational software included in the HDL's. They are completely lacking programs which assist with literacy, typing, speech, geography, graphs, photographs, reference material or any other educational content. It is the responsibility of the government who creates the HDL contracts with the OLPC to provide such educational software (Negroponte).

Contracts are negotiated and signed between the OLPC and the governments attempting to improve education. After the government agrees to pay the OLPC millions of dollars, a feat that is difficult for poorer third world countries, it is the government that decides how the computers are dispersed. The money that these governments promise to the OLPC is taken from their already dilapidated education systems that would have otherwise gone to build schools and pay teachers’ salaries. Throughout history, governments have been known to hoard aid to their people in order to maintain the status quo. Myanmar, for example, has hoarded international aid sent for natural disaster relief (McNern). The Iraq government has been known to hoard medical aid to its people (United Nations Foundation). Of the 1.3 billion dollars in aid that was sent to Ghana in 2001-2003, 1.2 billion remained in its national bank rather than spent on its people (The Economist). When it is the job of the governments to distribute the HDLs, it is not far fetched to believe that these same governments will do similar hoarding with their educational aid.

As already mentioned, governments have to provide the computers with programs that will make them useful to the students, beyond just basic internet access (Negroponte). This gives the governments even more power to control the educational system and prevent topics they don't feel should be taught to children, specifically to young girls. Singapore has taken steps to create laws that limit/prohibit certain religious, political and pornographic material available to its citizens from the internet (Aguilar). China has been the focus of Amnesty International with is censorship of internet and educational material through its national internet providers (Amnesty). Tunisia and Egypt have prohibited their citizens from viewing websites for political and other arbitrary reasons (Asiaing). Multiple countries in the Middle East prohibit the teaching of many western writers and historical events such as the Holocaust (Noman). Censorship from governments can prevent young girls from learning about their own bodies and topics such as female genital mutilation. Stringent government control prevents the overall purpose of the OLPC program which is to give children access to the World Wide Web and it's never ending resources (Fletcher).

Beyond these first few boundaries that the OLPC faces with its distribution and lack of educational content lies the problem of the sustainability of the HDLs. The computers are built to sustain as much damage as possible without being internally damaged. However, software problems can still occur that would render the computer useless. Without the maintenance base that only developed countries can afford, the HDLs cannot have a life expectancy that exceeds their need in the communities they are delivered to. The HDL is expected to last 5 years under standard use (OLPC-Hardware). This is assuming their power source, which has yet to be tested over an extended period of time, will last. However, knowing that some HDLs will receive heavier than expected use from children, they can be given a conservative life span of 3-4 years. This is also assuming its power source, generator or hand crank, remains unharmed. Even Kofi Anan, an avid supporter of the OLPC program, broke the power crank handle on the HDL he was shown when he first tried to use it (Zuckerman). Except for Ghana with 31 million and Ethiopia with 62 million, the other governments in need of HDLs have lower than a 15 million dollar GDP, making purchasing more laptops after 4 years nearly impossible (International Monetary Fund). Lack of power sources to charge the HDL’s has also proven to be problematic. They have attempted to build HDLs that are self powered or motion generated. However, these models proved harder to maintain and more expensive to produce making it even more difficult for the already economically strapped governments to purchase large amounts of them (Bullis). A parasitic type of power source is now being used; however, it too has maintenance problems that can drastically reduce the computer’s life expectancy.These parasitic power sources can be things such as car batteries or a common classroom generator (OLPC-Hardware). However, for the communities without cars, common in third world countries, there is just the self-powered generator. If the generator powered by a pull cord were to break, not far fetched with multiple children using it daily, an entire village of laptops would be rendered useless until a new generator could be purchased.

The 'off the grid' system used with the HDLs to try and provide Internet access to a larger population base depends on the upkeep of the HDLs in rural communities. The internet signal is transmitted from one computer to the next to create a base network that doesn't require more than one central server (OLPC-Hardware). It is done this way because in third world rural communities there are not enough servers or towers to transmit signal to an entire region. The use of the HDL as a receiver and transmitter allows the internet signal to reach a much larger area. With this setup however, if a few HDLs closest to the central Internet provider become inactive, Internet service can become extremely limited and in some cases unavailable to the wider rural population since the HDLs have a smaller range than the distance between many rural communities. If a rural community depends on one or two HDLs closest to it to receive Internet, the entire community can lose signal if these HDLs become inactive. The OLPC site offers an interactive demo to show how its network set-up works. With this demo it is not difficult to create a situation where an entire group of HDLs depend on one or two for their internet signal (OLPC-Hardware). Because of this fragile system of information transmission, small hiccups in the maintenance and upkeep of the computers can affect an entire region of children who depend on them for the majority of their educational material.

Other problems that the OLPC has to face can prevent it from truly changing the face of education in developing countries. Since OLPC's development of the Hundred Dollar Laptop, other companies have begun to produce and market their own low cost, high impact computers for the third world. These other companies, such as Intel, provide software with their computers that many, even in the third world, recognize and are more comfortable with such as Windows. Contracts with the OLPC were denied because of this lack of familiar software (Koman). In the meantime other HDL producers were able to obtain contracts that the OLPC has been unable to match even after they switched some of their units to Windows based software. With the higher popularity of these computers now becoming a threat in a market that had never had competition before, the OLPC is finding it harder and harder to secure contracts with governments to buy their HDLs. With lower sales in computers than expected, the price of manufacturing rises creating a downward spiral which the OLPC is nearly powerless to prevent. Also, with recognition of opportunity in the new 'under privileged' market, many corporations which once worked with and backed the OLPC have branched off on their own or gone to help competitors with their products. Without sufficient corporate backing and the support of third world governments, the OLPC is unable to reach the mark needed to produce the laptops at an affordable rate, therefore making them incapable of changing the face of global education(Tripathi).

The main problem of the OLPC program is its distribution through third world governments to children already in school. In the West, girls and boys attend school at fairly similar rates. As seen in the United States, women count for 54% of all college students (Mather). However, in the third world this is not the case. The US State Department reports that 60% of children not attending school in Africa are girls. That figure jumps to 80% in Afghanistan (Dobrianski). For every 100 boys not enrolled in school in Yemen there are 270 girls, 316 in Iraq, 426 in India and 257 in Benin (World Bank). Alarmingly, two thirds of the world’s illiterates are female (CIDA). The gender gap in literacy for different world regions can be seen in Figure 1 (CIDA). For one to use enrollment statistics as a means for comparison, as many studies do, all young girls would have to be able to easily attend school. However, in third world countries girls' attendance rates are lower than their enrollment rates (UNICEF). These statistics show there are barriers placed on young girls based on gender that prevent them from obtaining an education. There is no physical reason why young girls should have a lower attendance rate than their male counterparts. The OLPC fails to recognize this gender disparity in its mission to change the outlook of education on the world.

Literacy rate
(percentage of population age 15 and over)

Figure 1

Since the HDLs are sold to governments who then distribute them to the schools, only students who already attend school will get a laptop (Einhorn). With the lower rates of girls attending school compared to boys, it is not hard to realize that this will only further the gender gap in terms of educational opportunities. It also affects the extreme poor who are not able to send their children to school. Children who truly need the HDL to obtain educational opportunities will not receive it (Stern). As discussed by Mitra Sugata, technology such as this only has a large positive effect when introduced to poorer rural communities, not when it is given to those who are already receiving classroom education (Sugata).

The OLPC's vision to provide every child with a laptop was one that was supposed to change the world and how children learn in it. However, the HDLs lack of educational content, the responsibilities of dispersal being given to governments, and the lack of maintenance support will not change the face of education at all - in fact it will do quite the opposite. Children who already have access to education will receive even more materials. As seen in reports by the UN and the US State Department, the children who are able to attend schools are, on average, male. This discrepancy in attendance along with the method in which the computers are distributed only furthers the gap between the educational opportunities of girls compared to boys. The OLPC program does not address the unequal or segregated education that is prevalent in poor societies. Without recognition of this problem and direct work towards its reversal, no amount of technology will help girls obtain the same opportunities as boys. While an education with access to the Internet may help young girls gain the same knowledge base as young boys, it does little to help girls when they are not the ones receiving the technology. It also widens the gap between those in urban centers who have access to schools compared to those in rural communities where schools are less easily reached. It is much harder for a family in a distant village to send their children to school compared to a poor family living in or near a city center. This gives the children in urban areas where schools are more available a better chance at quality education while the rural children are left behind. The money that the governments put into the contracts with the OLPC could be used to build more schools in rural societies, pay the teachers better wages or hire more teachers to improve the already dismal teacher to student ratios. Instead, the money is used for technology that these societies aren't yet ready for (Posner).

There has been a plethora of research done to show the effects of computer based education on students. Recently, however, researchers have been performing studies on third world children to see if the effect is different on those who have never experienced a media involved curriculum. As Banarjee found, math scores were significantly higher with the students who used CBE compared to those who did not. She states that it seems to have “no measurable impact on language test scores” (Banarjee). A similar study performed by Michael Macaulay discovered the same results. However, Macaulay points out that computer based education, or CBE, has little to no effect on children who already have access to an education, or pre-knowledge of the subject. On the other hand, children without prior knowledge of the given subject, CBE has a greater effect on their test scores (Macaulay). This opinion is shared by Sugata Mitra who states that CBE will only work from the bottom up. He also states that CBE needs to be given to children in far rural communities who do not have access to education. However, this is completely the opposite of how the HDLs through Nicholas Negroponte’s OLPC are being distributed.

With the multiple problems in third world education that the OLPC does not address or rectify, it has at least opened a new market to the world. It has helped companies realize there is a market for technology that is durable, without the bells and whistles that have become standard luxuries in our society but not needed in the majority of the world (Pontin). In the future when the educational systems of third world countries reach gender discrepancies and percentages of attendance levels that are closer to those in the developed world, then perhaps the HDL started by the OLPC will have a positive effect on impoverished children's education. Until then it will only perpetuate the cycle of governments controlling information, preventing young girls from reaching their potential, and widen the discrepancy between the rich and poor.

Annotated Bibliography

Aguilar, Rose “Singapore Law Restricts Internet” 11 July 1996. CNET News. 25 November 2008
< http://news.cnet.com/2100-1023-217236.html>
This article talks about the restrictions imposed on the Singapore people, specifically though the control of the internet and how it is censored.

Amnesty International USA “Censorship in China” 2008. Internet Censorship. 25 November 2008
<http://www.amnestyusa.org/business-and-human-rights/internet-censorship/page.do?id=1101572>
This article discusses the censorship of the Chinese people and their internet and the different companies that have helped the Chinese Republic continue to censor their information.

Asiaing.com “False Freedom: Online Censorship in the Middle East and North Africa” 28 September 2008 Media 25 November 2008 <http://www.asiaing.com/false-freedom-online-censorship-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa.html>
This article discusses the type and breadth of censor ship found through the MENA region.

Banarjee, Abhijit et al "Computer-Assisted Learning project" Oct 2003 Poverty Action Lab. 19 Oct 2008
<http://www.povertyactionlab.com/projects/project.php?pid=6>
This is a study of how computer based learning affects children's development in poor societies.

Bullis, Kevin “Powering the $100 Laptop” 24 July 2006. Technology Review. MIT. 24 November 2008
<http://www.technologyreview.com/read_article.aspx?id=17194&ch=infotech&a=f>
Kevin Bullis discusses how the HDL with the OLPC will be charged and the different methods they have used.

Canadian International Development Agency(CIDA) “Education” 2008. Canadian Geographic Enterprises. 24 November 2008 <http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/worldmap/cida/education.asp>
This site offers statistics on girls education in the developing world as well as providing graphs showing the world literacy rates by gender and region.

Dobriansky, Paula “The Education of Girls in the Developed World” 25 September 2006. US Department of State. 24 November 2008 <http://www.state.gov/g/rls/rm/73283.htm>
This article mentions statistics of girls education in third world countries including world literacy rates and percent of girls who are out of school in different regions.

Einhorn, Bruce. "A Crusade to Connect Children" Business Week Online 17 Aug 2006 15-15
This article discusses the political walls that OLPC has to face in order to distribute HDLs to children throughout the impoverished world.

Fletcher, Geoffrey H. "It's a Vision Thing." T H E Journal 33:13 (Aug 2006) 16-17
This article lays out potential problems with distribution, social politics with HDLs and how different education systems can help to develop the OLPC program.

International Monetary Fund (IMF) “Nominal GDP List of Countries” October 2008. World Economies Outlook Database. 24 November 2008. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_gdp>
This site offers a ranked list of the world’s countries and their GDPs.

Koman, Richard. "XP on XO: Negroponte has lost his bearings" 16 May 2008 ZDNet. 19 Oct 2008. <http://government.zdnet.com/?p=3824>
This is a blog written by a well-known writer in the technology field. He gives a critique on the OLPC program and why it has a different direction than was initially intended.

Macaulay, Michael “The Effects of Multimedia on Learning in Third World Children” Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia. 12:2 (April 2003)
This article studies the effects of multimedia education on third world children who had never been given access to such technology before.

Mather, Mark & Adams, Dia “The Crossover in Female-Male College Enrollment Rates” 2008. Population Reference Bureau. 24 November 2008 <http://www.prb.org/Articles/2007/CrossoverinFemaleMaleCollegeEnrollmentRates.aspx>
This site offers information and statistics on the rate of women attending college in the USA and how the data has shifted over the last 30 years.

McNern, Ethan & Hla Tun, Aung “Junta Hoarding Aid from Abroad” 14 May 2008. The Scottsman. 26 Nov 2008
<http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/world/Junta-39hoarding-aid-from-abroad39.4079576.jp>
This website discusses Myanmar’s hoarding of foreign aid sent for cyclone relief.

Mitra, Sugata “Can Kids Teach Themselves?” February 2007. Technology, Education, Design. 25 November 2008
<http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/sugata_mitra_shows_how_kids_teach_themselves.html>
In this discussion Sugata Mitra talks about how children, even with no prior knowledge of technology, can use multimedia to learn.

Negroponte, Nicholas "Nicholas Negroponte: The vision behind one laptop per child" Aug 2006. Technology, Entertainment, Design. 19 Oct 2008. <http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/nicholas_negroponte_on_one_laptop_per_child.html> This is a video of Nicholas Negroponte giving a presentation at TED about his program OLPC. He discusses how they plan to implement it and what it means to the educational structure in developing nations.

Noman, Helmi & Zarwan, Elijah “Internet in the Middle East and North Africa” 2008. OpenNet Initiative. 26 November 2008 <http://opennet.net/research/regions/mena>
This piece talks about the censorship of the internet within the MENA and abroad.

One Laptop Per Child “Hardware-Features” 25 November 2008
<http://laptop.org/en/laptop/hardware/features.shtml>
This section of the official OLPC site discusses what is used in the HDL and why. It also offers a demo on the left side bar to show how the mesh internet network functions.

One Laptop Per Child. "Mission" 19 Oct 2008 <http://laptop.org/en/vision/mission/index.shtml>
This is the official OLPC site. It offers the direct mission of the organization. It also provides an example of how the mission has change from earlier reports and speeches by Nicholas Negroponte.

One Laptop Per Child "Interface" 19 Oct 2008 <http://laptop.org/en/laptop/interface/>
This section of the official OLPC website offers the explanation for the use of Linux and open interface software on the laptops.

Pontin, Jason. "Mediating Poverty" Technology Review. 108:8 (Aug 2005) 14-14
This article discusses how Negroponte's vision has changed the market for education distribution of the HDLs to children throughout the world.

Posner, Eric. "The Strange Case of One Laptop Per Child" 7 Jan 2008 University of Chicago Law School. 19 Oct 2008
<http://uchicagolaw.typepad.com/faculty/2008/01/the-strange-cas.html>
This is a very critical look at the OLPC program by a law professor at the University of Chicago. He views the need for a laptop as trivial compared to other needs in reference to impoverished education.

Stern, Joan. "Can the $100 Laptop Change the World?" 24 April 2007 LAPTOP 19 Oct 2008 <http://archive.laptopmag.com/News/Notebooks/Can-the-100-Laptop-Change-the-World.htm>
This interview directs questions to Mr. Negroponte about issues in the developing world and asks how his OLPC program will address such concerns.

The Economist “Foreign Aid- The Non-Aligned Movement” 4 April 2007. How to Make Aid Work. 25 November 2008. <http://legatum.mit.edu/Article_Foreign_aid>
This site discusses aid efforts around the world and mentions the amount of aid sent to Ghana.

Tripathi, Salil. "War of the $100 Laptops" New Statesman. 137:4880 (Jan 2008) 22-22
This article discusses the effects of competing entities on the OLPC program and why it has diminished the potential success of OLPC.

UNICEF. "Children Out of School" Child Info-Education. 2007. 9 Nov 2008 <http://www.childinfo.org/education_outofschool.php>
This website shows the ratio of children attending school in every country in the world. It also breaks down attendance and enrollment by gender showing the disparity in education in many countries.

United Nations Foundation “UN Official says Gov’t is hoarding medical supplies” 13 November 2008. UN Wire. 26 November 2008 < http://www.unwire.org/unwire/19990513/2586_story.asp>
This website discuses the Iraqi governments role in hoarding medical aid from it’s people.

World Bank “Girls’ Education” 2008. Education and Human Development. 24 November 2008
<http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTEDUCATION/0,,contentMDK:20298916~menuPK:617572~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:282386,00.html>
This site talks about the importance of education young girls and gives brief statistics on girls in school in third world countries.

Zuckerman, Ethan “It’s Cute. It’s Orange. It’s Got Bunny Ears. An Update on the OLPC Project” 1 June 2006. My Heart’s in Accra. 25 November 2008 <http://www.ethanzuckerman.com/blog/2006/06/01/its-cute-its-orange-its-got-bunny-ears-an-update-on-the-one-laptop-per-child-project/> This blogger discusses his opinions on the HDL and whether or not it will last when used by children.

Wangari Maathai

EllieBrewster — Thu, 18 Jun 2009 07:37:18 CDT

An African Hero

by Emily Beerbaum

"In a few decades, the relationship between the environment, resources and conflict may seem almost as obvious as the connection we see today between human rights, democracy and peace."

"It's the little things citizens do. That's what will make the difference. My little thing is planting trees. "

Wangari Maathai became the first African woman to recieve the Nobel Peace prize in 2004 for her achievements and contributions to development, democracy, and peace. As a political and environmental activist, her most renowned achievement is known as the Green Belt Movement. Wangari fought to bring the issue of environmental degradation to the public; she has helped to plant over 30 million trees in Africa to improve the quality of the earth for future generations by preventing deforrestation. The goal of this grassroots movement, which was started in 1977, is to prevent soil erosion, produce wood for fuel, improve biodiversity, and enhance the natural beauty of the earth.

As the daughter of farmers, Wangari Maathai was born in Nyeri, Kenya, in 1940. 0ne of her major accomplishments is being the first woman in Central and Eastern Africa to earn a doctoral degree. She has studied at Mount St. Scholastica College, Univeristy of Pittsburg, and University of Nairobi. Wangari has always been a positive role model and leader for women. She served in the National Council of Women of Kenya for eleven years. Also, one of the Green Belt Movement's major focus is to empower women, giving them leadership skills, as well as to spread this movement to other countries. This movement is also devoted to other areas of women's health, such as poverty, nutrition, and education.

Being such a strong-willed woman, Wangari has also had her share of controversy. Her husband divorced her in the 1980's, claiming she was "too educated, too strong, too successful, too stubborn and too hard to control." Wangari has also been imprisoned and beaten for speaking out against the government under Daniel arap Moi. Some examples of her activism include founding the Forum for the Restoration of Democracy, leading a hunger strike for political prisoners, and preventing a skyscraper from being built in Uhuru Park. Although she was not successful, she actually ran for presidency in 1997 in order to defeat Moi and end his corruption. There have been several instances where she has been beaten by people in opposition to her protests against modernization, yet Maathai is still going strong in her efforts of conservation.

Wangari has three children and has been a member of Parliament in Kenya since 2002. 0there positions she has held over the years include being the Goodwill Ambassador for the Congo Basin Forrest Initiative, the Presiding 0fficer for the Economic Social and Cultural Council of the Africa Union, Assistant Minister for the Environment, Republic of Kenya, Founding member of GR00TS International, Founding Chair of the Green Belt Movement International, and Director of the Kenya Red Cross. Besides the Nobel Peace Prize, Maathai has received numerous awards. Wangari Maathai is truly an African hero and inspirational woman whose vision has impacted the world.

Why would Grid review thank this Nobel Prize winner?

The Grameen Bank

EllieBrewster — Thu, 18 Jun 2009 07:34:38 CDT

by Kaleyope Clip

"Poverty is the absence of all human rights" -- Muhammad Yunus

"At the most basic level, the key to ending extreme poverty is to enable the poorest of the poor to get their foot on the ladder of development. The ladder of development hovers overhead, and the poorest of the poor are stuck beneath it. They lack the minimum amount of capital necessary to get a foothold, and therefore need a boost up to the first rung" -- Jeffery Sacks

The poor are not creditworthy. This is not a shocking claim. Many members of well-to-do democratic societies understand it at an almost intrinsic level. It implies that being poor shows that you have not accepted the personal responsibility to correct your situation, that you cannot be trusted. The poor are different, apart from our comfortable selves. Being poor is a sign of moral weakness, of 'indolence and profligacy' (viewpoints, 86), all traits counter to creditworthiness.

What is creditworthy, though? Merriam Webster defines it as 'financially sound enough to justify the extension of credit'. In purely financial terms, it is someone worthy of investing in. We judge worth in investment by past track records. Is your credit history good? Do you have a loan you paid off? Do you own your house? Then, after proving our past history, we frequently need to go a step further and trade off our current equity for a temporary loan, we may need to put up the deed to our house for that small business loan. Lucky thing for us that we have such collateral. But what of those without? Are they really worthless? Is their past of beingpoor sufficient proof of failure of the first test of creditworthiness? What if the definition of creditworthy was 'need for credit' rather then 'a good investment'? If that were the definition of creditworthiness, then the poor are most creditworthy. Banks will not lend to them, though, and their only typical recourse is to apply to predatory lenders. Lenders so usurious that they make it nearly impossible to get out from under their thrall.

In 1974 Muhammad Yunus witnessed such an exchange and was moved to do something about it. He created the Grameen Bank and helped foster the use of microcredit on a global scale. Microfinance institutions have picked up were banks left off by providing credit to the poor and worthy rather then just the creditworthy. The Grameen Bank and institutions like it have helped increase the standard of living for entire nations by redefining the way people look at credit and worthiness.

Grameen claims over 98% return rates on loans. It does not require collateral or contract so how does it have such high rates of recovery? One of the hallmarks of the Grameen Bank is the idea of solidarity lending and social pressure. Solidarity lending is the process of creating 'solidarity groups' that receive a loan in total. Rather then lending to an individual and requiring proof of ability to pay (collateral or contracts), a group is given a loan. Initially only a few members receive a loan disbursement but upon the first members successful repayment the rest of the members received a disbursement. This reduces administrative overhead and streamlines the application and payment process. There is advantages for the banks as this can also distribute risk and distribution of risk usually results in reduction of risk. Additionally important to the Grameen structure of lending is the idea of social pressure and support. Grameen requires regular meetings of groups members, the adoption of certain lifestyle rules, and upfront communication of financial status. This has a twofold affect on the loan groups: creating a network to apply social pressure to help ensure loans are repaid (and thereby allowing the group to gain additional loans) and creating a network to help support the group members in asserting their individual rights in their pursuit of betterment.

The assertion of the need for basic human rights (and responsibilities) highlights one of the major differences between solidarity lending and other typical secured transaction lending (secured transactions are those involving collateral or contracts). The difference is that it is not just a desired side effect that the infusion of fund helps the community, it is a necessary requirement for solidarity lending. It also shows that money is not the only measure of creditworthiness. Typical secured transactions are backed by other forms of money. In essence, the only way to judge money is though money. Solidarity lending is not backed by any form of monetary transaction, its basis is on community. The stronger the community, the more secure the loan. Yunus talks of this as a social business, the sort of business whose goal is not to make money but to make a difference in the world.

Women are the majority lenders in Grameen and most other microcredit institutions. They account for 97% of all borrowers. Grameen Bank states that this is because giving loans to women brought about more benefits to the family. Outside of the Western World, it is an accepted practice. "Women are often responsible for the upbringing of the world's children and the poverty of the women generally results in the physical and social underdevelopment of their children. Experience shows that women are a good credit risk, and that women invest their income toward the well being of their families. At the same time, women themselves benefit from the higher social status they achieve within the home when they are able to provide income." (microcreditsummit) Women's labor accounts the majority of wealth generating tasks but the women themselves are frequently unpaid for the work. "Microfinance programs bring women into the cash economy, encourage the poor to develop entrepreneurial habits and skills, and sometimes help stimulate economic growth" (Explore 436). In a study of the impact of Microfinance (using the Grameen Bank in as an indicator) to see if it had affect outside of financial concerns, found the following 3 facts: participation in Grameen changed mean number of children per household and changed the strong parental preference for male children giving indication to an improvement status for female children; participants moved from being passive recipients of credit to active economic and social actors increasing self confidence and participation is non-economic activities; participants and the general community around them were more receptive to non-tradition opportunities that conflicted with existing values andcustoms. (Basher 182) The Grameen Bank literally codifies these desired outcomes though publishing of its 16 Decisions.

Muhammad Yunus was born in 1940, the third of nine children, in the village of Bathua in what was to become Bangladesh. His family moved to Chittagong while he was young. He enrolled in Dhaka University in 1957 and received his BA and MA in economics by 1961. He worked for the Bureau of Economics and as a lecturer for Chittagong College. He received a Fulbright scholarship in 1965 and obtained his Ph.D. in economics from Vanderbilt University. He worked briefly as an assistant professor of economics for Middle Tennessee State University before returning to Bangladesh, first as member of the governments Planning Commission, then as head of the Economics department at Chittagong University. In 1976, while working for Chittagong University, he was inspired by the awful economic conditions he observed in the village of Jobra (near Chittagong) to actions that would eventually result in the Grameen Bank. In 2006, Yunus and Grameen Bank received the Nobel Peace Prize.

The moment that started it for Yunus was observing the transactions between a money lender and Sufia Begum, an impoverished mother of 3 who made bamboo stools for a living in Jobra. In order to get the money for supplies (a total of $.09 needed per stool), Sufia took out a loan from the money lender who made a condition that she would sell all her products back to him for a value he would name. This value was far short of market value for the stools and resulted in a net profit of $.02 per stool for Begum. Yunus has stated on the event, "I thought to myself, my God, for [two cents] she has become a slave. ... I couldn't understand how she could be so poor when she was making such beautiful things." Yunus calculated that Begum was paying interest of 10% per day, totaling over 3000% a year and he knew that this was typical. It was a moment of focus, a Eureka moment as Yunus states. The next day he and his students surveyed Jobra and found 42 others that were dealing with similar circumstances. They totaled the amount lent out by the money lenders to be $27. Yunus decided to front the money himself. He gave out the loans with no collateral, no contracts, no expectations except that the money be used to better their circumstances and to try to pay him back. ( Explore, 445)

Grameen claims over 98% return rates on loans. It does not require collateral or contract so how does it have such high rates of recovery? One of the hallmarks of the Grameen Bank is the idea of solidarity lending and social pressure. Solidarity lending is the process of creating 'solidarity groups' that receive a loan in total. Rather then lending to an individual and requiring proof of ability to pay (collateral or contracts), a group is given a loan. Initially only a few members receive a loan disbursement but upon the first members successful repayment the rest of the members received a disbursement. This reduces administrative overhead and streamlines the application and payment process. There is advantages for the banks as this can also distribute risk and distribution of risk usually results in reduction of risk.

Additionally important to the Grameen structure of lending is the idea of social pressure and support. Grameen requires regular meetings of groups members, the adoption of certain lifestyle rules, and upfront communication of financial status. This has a twofold affect on the loan groups: creating a network to apply social pressure to help ensure loans are repaid (and thereby allowing the group to gain additional loans) and creating a network to help support the group members in asserting their individual rights in their pursuit of betterment. The assertion of the need for basic human rights (and responsibilities) highlights one of the major differences between solidarity lending and other typical secured transaction lending (secured transactions are those involving collateral or contracts). The difference is that it is not just a desired side effect that the infusion of fund helps the community, it is a necessary requirement for solidarity lending. It also shows that money is not the only measure of creditworthiness. Typical secured transactions are backed by other forms of money. In essence, the only way to judge money is though money. Solidarity lending is not backed by any form of monetary transaction, its basis is on community. The stronger the community, the more secure the loan. Yunus talks of this as a social business, the sort of business whose goal is not to make money but to make a difference in the world.

Women are the majority lenders in Grameen and most other microcredit institutions. They account for 97% of all borrowers. Grameen Bank states that this is because giving loans to women brought about more benefits to the family. Outside of the Western World, it is an accepted practice. "Women are often responsible for the upbringing of the world's children and the poverty of the women generally results in the physical and social underdevelopment of their children. Experience shows that women are a good credit risk, and that women invest their income toward the well being of their families. At the same time, women themselves benefit from the higher social status they achieve within the home when they are able to provide income." (microcreditsummit) Women's labor accounts the majority of wealth generating tasks but the women themselves are frequently unpaid for the work. "Microfinance programs bring women into the cash economy, encourage the poor to develop entrepreneurial habits and skills, and sometimes help stimulate economic growth" (Explore 436). In a study of the impact of Microfinance (using the Grameen Bank in as an indicator) to see if it had affect outside of financial concerns, found the following 3 facts: participation in Grameen changed mean number of children per household and changed the strong parental preference for male children giving indication to an improvement status for female children; participants moved from being passive recipients of credit to active economic and social actors increasing self confidence and participation is non-economic activities; participants and the general community around them were more receptive to non-tradition opportunities that conflicted with existing values and customs. (Basher 182) The Grameen Bank literally codifies these desired outcomes though publishing of its Sixteen Decisions.

The Nobel Prize:

In October of 2006, Yunus and Grameen Bank each accepted one half of the Nobel Peace Prize. In the presentation speech, Professor Ole Danbolt Mjøs states that "By means of this year's Peace Prize award, the Norwegian Nobel Committee wishes to focus attention on dialogue with the Muslim world, on the women's perspective, and on the fight against poverty." Later he continues, "Micro-credit has proved itself to be a liberating force in societies where women in particular have to struggle against repressive social and economic conditions. Economic growth and political democracy can not achieve their full potential unless the female half of humanity on earth contributes on an equal footing with the male." (nobelprize) By the awarding of the prize, the Nobel committee underscored the correlation between peace and a lack of poverty. Yunus and Grameen, after all have been award for the peace efforts, not their economic ones. In the citation given to the press the Nobel Committee stated that, "Lasting peace cannot be achieved unless large population groups find ways in which to break out of poverty," and that, "Microcredit is one such means. Development from below also serves to advance democracy and human rights."

Criticisms:

Grameen is not without its criticisms. Even the awarding of the Nobel Prize contained the codicil (from Mjoes Q/A after prize presentation) "We are saying microcredit is an important contribution that cannot fix everything, but is a big help." Like all distributed delivery systems, there are issues with oversight. For all the heralding Grameen receives for its lending to women, men make up the majority of the bank employees and facilitators (one major exception being the telephone ladies of Grameen Phone, a separate but related agency that provide cell phones on credit to women who then charge fellow villagers for temporary use of service). There is an implication that women are the sole moral and financial guardians of the family which could lead to an increase of female responsibilities. The services of Grameen are tailored more towards advancement of the rural poor, opportunities for the urban poor are not as prevalent. The social pressures that make up part of the Grameen structure do not work as effectively in the more anonymous urban setting where the sense of community is sometimes dimmed by anonymity. It is possible for a good borrower to become stuck with bad repayers and thereby not be able to get any further loans unless they make some other arrangement to cover the costs together. There is a general expectation of being able to improve your situation that is not applicable to some of the neediest poor (to counter this assumption, Grameen started a 'beggars' program that has been inordinately successful but still does not address the issue of those physically incapable of helping themselves). Regular meetings can be a burden on family life and solidarity of a group can sometimes be difficult to maintain. Microcredit in general has been accused of being a substitute privatized welfare without the governmental oversight and that it weakens the structure of existing poverty programs. Grameen loan recipients are still vulnerable to natural disasters and catastrophes.
The criticisms against Grameen and microcredit are valid if there is an assumption that microcredit will replace all other existing poverty relief measures. This would be a mistake. Microcredit is not the end-all-be-all solution to poverty relief. It cannot replace government infrastructure improvements (which so closely tie into a countries developmental capacities). It cannot provide support it times of catastrophes (as witnessed by the great flood of 1998 that nearly decimated half of Bangladesh and nearly destroyed Grameen). It cannot take advantage of goal setting and long term planning. It cannot provide assistance to those physically unable to help themselves.

Finally!

Microcredit and the Grameen Bank have been lauded for the positive effect they have on the women and communities around them. Microcredit is not a substitute for charity or welfare programs but it is a valid tool to help support those stuck in poverty as they reach for the first rung in the ladder of development. Even more important then the financial gains brought about by microcredit are the gains to the community.

The very nature of how microcredit works is uplifting to many, I encourage you to check out www.kiva.org and become your own Microfinancier.

Bibliography

Websites

Grameen Foundation. http://www.grameenfoundation.org/
Mission Statement: Grameen Foundation's mission is to empower the world's poorest people to lift themselves out of poverty with dignity through access to financial services and to information. Official site

Grameen-Info. http://www.grameen-info.org/bank
Another semi-official site with personal histories and articles by Muhammad Yunus. Contains several informational sections on history and economics of microfinance

ING Blogs. http://www.ingblogs.com/microfinance/ and http://www.ingmicrofinance.com/home/
A non-NGO, more business focused look at mircofinance. ING is a global banking and finance group with strong Asian branches

Microcredit Summit Campaign. http://www.microcreditsummit.org/
A non-Grameen specific International microcredit support organization that emphasizes lending to poor women. Publishes a yearly report on the global state of microcredit

Nobel Prize. org. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2006/presentation-speech.html
Presentation speech on the awarding of the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize. Journals and Whitepapers

Articles

Amin, Sajeda; Rai, Ashok S.; Topa, Giorgio"Does microcredit reach the poor and vulnerable? Evidence from northern Bangladesh "
Journal of Development Economics, Vol. 70, Issue: 1, February, 2003. pp. 59-82
This paper evaluates whether microcredit programs such as the Grameen Bank reach the relatively poor and vulnerable in two Bangladeshi villages. It is very economics heavy

Basher, Md. Abul."Empowerment of Microcredit Participants and Its Spillover Effects: Evidence from the Grameen Bank of Bangladesh" The Journal of Developing Areas, Vol. 40, Issue: 2, April 23, 2007. pp. 173-183
This paper analyzes how participation in microcredit program helps to reduce the fertility rate. By using the data from the Grameen Bank of Bangladesh, the paper also examines whether the accomplished empowerment of the microcredit borrower remains limited only to economic activities or also reflected in their non-economic activities. The results show that the Grameen Bank transforms its participants from a passive recipient of credit to a well responsive and active agent

Bernasek, Alexandra. "Banking on Social Change: Grameen Bank Lending to Women "
International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society, Vol. 16, Issue: 3, Spring 2003. pp. 369-385
Evaluation of the Grameen Bank as a strategy for empowering and improving the socioeconomic status of women in Bangladesh, and identifying lessons from the Grameen Bank experience that can inform development policy more generally. Arguments for and against Grameen Bank are evaluated in the light of evidence from studies of the Bank

Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing. Elsevier Science Volume 3, issue 5 (September, 2007)
Contains Mohamed Yunus' Nobel acceptance speech and a 11 page editorial on Grameen and microcredit

Mahmud, Simeen "Actually how Empowering is Microcredit? "
Development and Change, Vol. 34, Issue: 4, September 2003. pp. 577-605
(Abstract) This article re-assesses the effect of microcredit programme participation on women's empowerment by applying an analytical framework that recognizes the conceptual shift in emphasis in the definition of empowerment, from notions of greater well-being of women to notions of women's choice and active agency in the attainment of greater well-being. The author finds that microcredit programme participation has only a limited direct effect in increasing women's access.

Books

Bender, David (pub), Poverty - Opposing Viewpoints, Greenhaven Press, San Diego California, 1999
A compilation of 30 different and sometime opposing viewpoints on seriousness, cause and solutions to poverty (America perspective)

Sacks, Jeffrey D., The End of Poverty - Economic Possibilities for Our Time, The Penguin Press, New York, 2005
Discusses actual case studies of collapsed, collapsing and never supported economies and the effect different methods of poverty relief have had (both good and bad aspects). A global perceptive.

Yunus, Muhammad. "Creating a World Without Poverty" PublicAfffairs, 2008.
A New Book by Muhammad Yunus, goals and history of Grameen.

Animal Cruelty and Abuse of Humans

EllieBrewster — Thu, 18 Jun 2009 07:30:23 CDT

Escher Brune
Correlations between Animal Cruelty and the Abuse of Humans

My father tortured cats. They stared at him, you see, so they had to die. Once, he shot one of our dogs in the genitals because it barked at him. The dog died slowly and I learned a valuable lesson: You don't bark at your master. I mastered the art of being invisible, because when his eyes went to cold, I couldn't tell if my father was seeing his little girl or just another animal.

It is natural for me to care about child abuse and neglect, to get personally involved when I see evidence of domestic abuse, and to be emotionally vested in the plight of animals that suffer at the hands of people. These things touch a place in me because my childhood and early adult life was spent in that violent space, first at my father's hands and then my husband's. If mine was the only life touched by violence, it could be forgiven and forgotten. But I am not the first person - and sadly not the last- to live in a world ruled by fear and domination. Approximately four children die every day in the United States from abuse and neglect. While abuse numbers are conservative due to underreporting, a 1995 Gallup poll of parents led researchers to estimate that each year, approximately three million children are the victims of physical abuse alone (Child Welfare League of America, 2007).

Widespread animal abuse is similarly all too common. In two studies of college undergrads, half of the students reported either perpetrating or witnessing animal cruelty. One in five reported perpetrating violence against animals and one in seven reported killing stray animals. The study, conducted in a Midwest College by Miller & Knutson (1997), was followed by a larger survey conducted in a southeastern university by sociologist, Clifton Flynn. Using the same measures as Miller and Knutson, Flynn's survey was administered to 267 undergraduates in introductory psychology and sociology classes. While more than half of Flynn's respondents were female (68.4%), the males surveyed were twice as likely as females to report a history which included observing or committing animal abuse (Flynn, 2000).

Defining child, sexual, emotional, and domestic abuse is difficult and the types and levels of abuse that must be reported to authorities vary across jurisdictions. The Child Welfare League of America (CWLA) defines child maltreatment to include both physical acts which can cause injury and acts of neglect which may cause harm indirectly. Sexual abuse is any sexual activity with a child which can include (but is not limited to) persuasion, physical force, and coercive means. This includes child prostitution and pornography. Emotional maltreatment is an act (or omission) by caregiver that results in an impairment of a child's physical, social, mental, or emotional capacities (Child Welfare League of America, 2007). Domestic violence is equally as ambiguous across jurisdictions. In most cases, it is defined by law as any physical abuse - or threat of physical abuse - between intimate partners, family members, or even roommates. Many advocates define domestic violence as any pattern of intimidating behavior that is used in order to establish power and control over an individual (Abuse, Rape and Domestic Violence Aid and Resource Collection, 2009).

The cruelty visited upon animals is as varied and difficult to measure as the abuse that humans heap on one another. Additionally, animals lack the voice to name their attackers and our society permits - even encourages - some behaviors that not only harm, but kill animals for the purpose of sports hunting, fishing, and even producing food for human consumption (Flynn, 2000). More often than not, the victims of abuse are cats, dogs, and small animals (like birds, rodents, reptiles). Most commonly, the forms of abuse are shooting or direct physical contact (like hitting, kicking, beating, or throwing an animal against the wall). Most killings are carried out with a gun (Flynn, 2000). While the various forms of abuse can be difficult to classify or define, cases of child abuse, animal abuse, and domestic violence are very much connected. The tendency of a child or adolescent to abuse or kill animals can indicate a violent future; a fascination with the suffering of animals can translate into a lack of empathy, which makes it easier to visit the same violence on humans, and the violence or the threat of violence to pets can serve to keep human victims in line.

Hopefully, we can utilize our understanding of this connection to stop - even reverse - the cycle of violence, by using animals to bring the humanity out in the most violent of humans. First, we will examine the possibility that animal abuse can be a predictor of future behaviors, then, we will look at animal abuse as a control mechanism. Finally, we will consider the possibility that animals can be used to rehabilitate violent individuals.

ANIMAL ABUSE & KILLING AS AN INDICATOR OF ABUSIVE TENDENCIES

"Damaged" people often find other similarly damaged people. As I moved through life, I collected many friends with the same experiences as mine, some with histories of even more profound abuse and neglect. A common thread emerged from the stories we shared: an inheritance and/or progression of violence. Most of us were abused by victims of abuse and many of our abusers told stories of cruelty to animals. One friend told me about her brother's fascination with catching squirrels on setting them on fire. Another told me about her molester's history of torturing animals. For me it was my husband, who recalled his time in the service overseas and laughed as he told me about paying to watch shows that featured bestiality, cock fights, and dog fights. When I asked how he could find humor in this he said simply, "Some people laugh and some people cry. I choose to laugh."

There are undeniable links between interpersonal violence and animal abuse. The First Strike campaign of The Humane Society of the United States serves to increase the public's awareness of these connections. While animal abuse has been ignored by many researchers who study human-on-human abuse, other researchers have found links between the two. In clinical studies, children who are cruel to animals have been found more likely to be aggressive or violent towards other humans making it a possible predictor of future violent behavior (Flynn, 2000). In 1987, physical cruelty to animals was added to the list of symptoms for the diagnosis of conduct disorder by the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Ascione & Arkow, 1999). A lack of empathy for animals in childhood may lead to a lack of empathy for both animals and humans in later life (Flynn, 2000) and studies have found that children who have been cruel to animals are more likely to be violent towards people later in life. Many serial killers and mass murders have histories of animal abuse and studies of sexually aggressive criminals have found similar histories of animal cruelty (Kellert & Felthous, 1985). Additionally, animal cruelty tends to be associated with domestic, elder, and child abuse and an overall approval of interpersonal violence, particularly family violence

A meta-analysis of family violence found that the abuse of companion and non-companion animals is seen where there is also physical and sexual abuse of female partners, same sex partners, children and siblings. In studies of child abuse cases where government intervention took place, pet abuse was also occurring in 88% of the cases. One third of the animal abusers were children in the family and two-thirds were their fathers. In cross-cultural studies, researchers found that in societies where animal cruelty is more normative, female victims of violence are more likely to be scarred, permanently injured or even killed. Similar studies were conducted with women entering domestic violence shelters which found that -of those owning pets - 71% reported that their partner had threatened, abused, or killed at least one of their pets. Sadly many of those women delayed seeking shelter out of concern for the well being of their pet (Flynn, 2000).

ANIMAL ABUSE & KILLING AS A CONTROL MECHANISM

My husband scooped up my terrier, Pepper, and threw her out the front door. "You want to leave?" he screamed as she hit the ground with a thud, "You want to leave?" I chose a man much like my father, I suppose. When the police arrived that night, I had no marks and there was no sign of injury to Pepper, so they told me they could not arrest him. I begged them to at least take my husband's guns away but they had no legal standing to do so. The officers urged me to go to a shelter, even offered to take me to one, but none of the shelters would let me bring Pepper. I clung to my trembling dog and knew he would kill her if I went. And so I stayed.

Several studies have been conducted with women seeking refuge in domestic violence shelters (Taylor, 2004; Flynn, 2000) and these studies have found high incidences of interpersonal and animal abuse. Nearly half of the women in these studies reported that their partners had threatened to harm their pets, 88% reported that they had trouble finding a place for their pets to go while they sought the protection of the shelter and 48% had delayed taking a spot in a shelter for fear of what would happen to the animals they left behind. Pets provide emotional support when these women need it most, but they can be used as a tool by batterers to keep a victim in the home. Research has found that abusers, most often male, frequently harm or threaten to harm pets in order to control and intimidate their victims into silence (Ascione & Arkow, 1999). In our patriarchal society, women, children, and animals all have disadvantaged status which makes victimization by more powerful males possible (Flynn, 2000).

CAN ANIMALS MAKE HUMANS MORE HUMANE?

In the last few years, I had the opportunity to conduct research in three Ohio prisons. In two of those prisons, inmates with lengthy sentences and good behavior credit can petition to be part of an animal training program. Dogs from the local dog shelter are brought into the prison where they live, sleep, and are trained alongside inmates. The program fascinated me and I ended up adopting one of those dogs, a miniature husky. I was never allowed to meet the two men who cared for him for those months behind razor wire - one was a convicted rapist, the other had taken a life - but I read their careful notes in his training log. As I pause to reach down and pet him, curled at my feet as I type, he is a testament to the program's success for the dogs; he flourished under the care of the two men. I hope that they benefited from their time with him as much as he did.

Given that a history of childhood exposure to animal abuse can lead to interpersonal violence later in life and understanding that violence to animals is often occurring alongside domestic violence and child abuse, we can only hope that the same mechanism can work in reverse; we can teach men (and women) to be kind to animals and thus teach them to be kind to each other. Several researchers have examined the benefits of programs that take animals into prisons for just that purpose (Strimple, 2003; Deaton, 2005; Harkrader, Burke & Owen, 2004; Furst, 2006; Turner, 2007; Fournier, Geller & Fortney, 2007).

These researchers have found evidence that inmates benefit from these programs, that they learn life-skills while in the programs, and that they experience lower recidivism rates after participating. Whether they are training horses, teaching animals to be service providers for the disabled, or they are rehabilitating animals that would otherwise be euthanized, these inmates seem to benefit, as do the animals. Additionally, the prisons which house these programs report lowered incidences of tension, reductions in fights, and increased morale among both prisoners and correctional officers in the facilities.

The overall success of these programs is promising. The animals receive the best care they have likely had in their lives, the prisoners build trust, empathy, and a sense of responsibility, and society benefits by having rehabilitated animals and humans as a final product. While many prefer for prison to be punitive, we must remember that - for most inmates - the day will come when they return to society. We have to ask ourselves if we wish for those men and women to emerge from their cells angry and vengeful, or if we would prefer that they reenter society with a sense of purpose and empathy. By acknowledging the link between violence against all creatures, we can work collaboratively across agencies towards the goal of a world in which nonviolence is normative.

CONCLUSION

My father left when I was 16 and my parents divorced soon after. My father found a name for his illness and some help to equalize his life, my brother became a loving father, my mother eventually made a safe life for herself, and I finally found peace for myself and my daughter. I believe in the power of people to change their lives and the ability of caring people to intercede on behalf of those who are in need. Change is not easy, however, and we must be vigilant. We must take notice when someone is demonstrating behaviors that make them a risk to themselves or others. We must not tolerate cruelty to any fellow animal. We must do everything in our power to transform the lives of those who have learned to hurt others, or they will continue to cause pain in the world around them. If you have been blessed to live your life outside the shadow of abuse, please contribute to any of the many organizations that are trying to make the world a safe and peaceful place.

WHERE TO GET HELP

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ascione, F. R. & Arkow, P. (1999). Child Abuse, domestic violence, and animal abuse: Linking the circles of compassion for prevention and intervention. West Lafayette, Indian: Purdue University Press.

Deaton, C. (2005). Humanizing prisons with animals: A closer look at cell dogs and horse programs in correctional institutions. Journal of Correctional Education, 56(1), 46-62.

Flynn, C. (2000). Why family professionals can no longer ignore violence toward animals. Family Relations, 49(1), 87-96.

Fournier, A., Geller, E., & Fortney, E. (2007). Human-animal interaction in a prison setting: Impact on criminal behavior, treatment progress, and social skills. Behavior & Social Issues, 16(1), 89-105.

Furst, G. (2006). Prison-based animal programs. Prison Journal, 86(4), 407-430.

Child protection: facts and figures. Child Welfare League of America (CWLA). Retrieved (April 12, 2009)) from http://www.cwla.org/programs/childprotection/childprotectionfaq.htm#definition

Harkrader, T., Burke, T., & Owen, S. (2004). Pound puppies: The rehabilitative uses of dogs In correctional facilities. Corrections Today, 66(2), 74-79.

Kellert, S., & Felthous, A. (1985). Childhood cruelty toward animals among criminals and noncriminals. Human Relations, 38(12), 1113-1129.

Miller, K. S. & Knutson, J. F. (1997) Reports of severe physical punishment and exposure to animal cruelty by inmates convicted of felonies and by university students. Child Abuse and Neglect, 21, 59-82.

Strimple, E. (2003). A history of prison Inmate-animal interaction programs. American Behavioral Scientist, 47(1), 70-78.

Taylor, N. (2004). Making links: Domestic violence, child abuse and harm to companion animals. Animals Today, 12(2), 18-19.

Turner, W. (2007). The experiences of offenders in a prison canine program. Federal Probation, 71(1), 38-43.

What IS Domestic Violence? Abuse, Rape and Domestic Violence Aid and Resource Collection (AARDVARC) Retrieved (April 12,2009) from http://www.aardvarc.org/dv/whatisdv.shtml

Disability -- Prejudice, Perception and Revelatin

EllieBrewster — Thu, 18 Jun 2009 07:25:30 CDT

by Sydney Scientist

A disability can be anything really; a loose definition of a disability is something that prevents a person from living a full, normal life (Lancaster 2009). Using this definition, a disability can be anything that inhibits someone from living the way they would like to. A disability can be an inability to drive a car, open a door, type on a computer; anything. A disability affects the way a person lives their daily lives, hinders them from functioning in a capacity in which they would like to. According to the U.S. Department of Education there are many types of disabilities, they range from physical, sensory, cognitive, psychiatric, and health-related. They can affect anything from the senses like blindness or they can be learning disorders like A.D.D. (Lancaster 2009). Those with disabilities have differing view points. Some feel or are physically unable to function within society. Some use whatever means they can to live within society's constraints. Others feel that society should cater to them, they are not the ones with the problem, and society is by not making the world functional to them. Along this topic, I have had the opportunity to experience a form of technological disability within SL and was given a guide dog to try to work within this virtual world. The practical application of using a guide dog in SL is something I have had the opportunity to experience in Second Life, and I will discuss the uses and advantages of having a guide dog. I will also talk about the reception of people with disabilities in Second Life. Disabilities are variable and come in different forms and effect people uniquely.

Second Life is a virtual world where people use avatars as a representation of themselves and the "residents" of SL use these avatars to socialize with others. Each person's avatar is unique to them and it represents their personality. In Second Life you can change the appearance of your avatar, and is important when studying socialization of people in virtual worlds how much their appearance can play a role in their lives. In Second Life there has also been a trend that people with disabilities are able to represent their particular disability, whether it is through a wheelchair, a guide dog, or by animating their avatar to have characteristics similar to their own.

The use of Second Life permits social interaction for people with disabilities; in other instances, people with disabilities are more comfortable interacting with others in environments where they can control things, such as their appearance. Second Life is an online virtual world where people interact socially and can “live” as they do in actual life. In SL there are business, places of entertainment, places of residence and even automobiles. Avatars are formed by their user; at first a generic female or male is provided and the user can manipulate the avatar to look however they wish. Pink hair, extra legs, abstract forms are all common in Second Life where everyone can be anything. Communication is performed in two ways, one through instant message where the users type to each other, or through voice chat where each user has a microphone. Movement is controlled by mouse or keyboard; avatars can walk, run, drive and fly amongst other modes of ambulation. Second Life provides a way for people to interact with one another, and in doing so people can create networks and communities within this virtual world.

Second Life is home to many communities and social networks created for those with certain disabilities. These organizations have helped give support to thousands of people. Simon Walsh created “Wheelies,” a club where people of all types can be part of a supportive environment where people are treated equally, regardless of their abilities. Virtual ability is a program in SL, run by volunteers. These programs allow users to have virtual guide dogs which help their avatar navigate SL, find people, read signs and generally improve their experience in this virtual world.

In Second Life, there are only differences in your appearance or physical appearance if you want them to be. One trend that has popped up in SL since its launch in 2003 is the appearance of wheelchairs as well as guide dogs for the use of the virtual residents. An article in On the Issues Magazine claimed that avatars are a way of dealing with disability through abstract representation: "in some cases it is also therapeutic, allowing the individual to explore alternate identities or to deal with a physical or emotional disability in a safe environment," (Collingwood 2009).

It is easy to forget that Second Life is different from Real Life, Second Life is a virtual community where people have an identity and existence separate from their real life. .In SL people can have disabilities represented for them, but there are also non-disabled residents who struggle in their lives in Second Life. Some people suffer from having an outdated computer, while others suffer from dyslexia or screen sickness. It seems that SL is trying to accommodate those with and without physical limitations by advancing their technology. Software is constantly being updated so as to allow those with both physical and technological issues the ability to try and have the same types of opportunities in a virtual world. One article states that they have plans to make SL accessible to the blind or those with vision issues by making Second Life into a text based environment (Folmer 2007). Another advancement made is the voice chat; over 50% of users are able to use voice chat and 97% of SL’s regions are voice enabled (Linden 2009). It seems as if the future is racing toward the present with the technological advances made for SL.

As avatars are important to a person's interaction in Second Life, the application of wheel chairs represent a lot to disabled residents. One such resident, Seshat Czeret, feels that "A wheelchair gives someone with limited mobility but otherwise functional in the real world the ability to go out and do things and be a functional member of the community, From my computer chair, I can teach, run a business, have an active social life, and be a functioning member of a community. Second Life is my wheelchair." (Metaverse Journal 2008). Czeret does not use a wheelchair in SL but in RL she is unable to function as she would like to in society and she finds that she can interact more functionally in Second Life.

Wheelchairs and guide dogs are a good representation of disability in Second Life, but there are also other physical and social representations of disability surviving in the virtual world. One example is a group of people afflicted with Asperger's Syndrome, a form of Autism. This group has created their own island and group for support and socializing, they are called "The Naughty Auties". These people feel more comfortable in SL and also in an environment with people who share their problems. (Mangan 2008) Another example is a woman with cerebral palsy who is able to interact with others in SL using a head wand to control her avatar when in RL she has a difficult time getting around and socializing with others. (Wheeling in Second Life 2009) These are a few ways that Second Life is both helping and affecting people with disabilities, allowing them to have the ability to socialize with others in a forum that allows them equal footing with others who may not have disabilities.

In SL you can never be sure what or who is a resident; as mentioned previously, residents can take whatever form they want, a rock, race car or a raven if they choose. In reality people tend to discriminate, not always knowingly, against people who are different from themselves. Some people using Second Life embrace how they are in real life and choose to represent themselves as how they truly are. Some choose to represent their disabilities with 2ndisability, a website that simulates physical disabilities in Second Life, such as deafness and blindness (Kratzer 2007). Another option is Wheelies, created by Simon Stevens to both receive a wheelchair and to interact in his club Wheelies. Anyone can visit Wheelies and interact in their club or even receive a wheelchair if they wish.

It may not matter to others what they look like on Second Life, and that aspect has made life more fulfilling for those who can use virtual worlds and not be discriminated against. From a stroke victim visualizing herself walking again to an agoraphobic who is able to explore the vast world of Second Life, these people have seen the advantages of using Second Life, and for the most part they feel that it has given them a part of their lives back (Stein 2007). Although virtual worlds can be fulfilling and healing to those that feel they can not socialize with others well in reality, it has also become a place of therapy for others. Some residents may have physical and mental disabilities that leave them unable to interact with others but others may suffer from mental disorders that need mental health therapy from a certified health care professional but it seems a growing trend of people have started trying to use virtual worlds as therapy instead of going to a health care professional. Just as these virtual tools can help those with disability issues and their ability to socialize, it can also hinder their health physically and mentally. Some people see using these virtual worlds as a form of "Internet Therapy", making medical therapy obsolete for these people, and this is not a safe route for those who are psychologically frail. (Stein 2007) Even though SL is a virtual world that seems free from judgment in the case of mental health it is still necessary for these individuals to seek physical medical attention.

SL provides individuals with the ability to interact in a comfortable forum for themselves but there is also other organizations that have been created because of this virtual community. Such organizations as Dreams and Health InfoIsland are two of the many organizations and websites that people can use in this virtual world to find social groups. (Virtualability 2009) Virtualability in particular provides an assessment for those newly entering the virtual world; they do an assessment and give help in integrating new people into Second Life.

These organizations have been created because of the high use of the internet by people with disabilities. It has been shown that those with autism and cerebral palsy have had better quality of life because of the internet and virtual reality simulations. (Kuhlen 2000 ,Weiss 2003) Children with autism also had more positive interactions socially after having virtual simulation training. (Herrera 2008) The organizations in Second and Real Life are supported by research like this as well as by groups promoting education in virtual or internet forms that makes it easier for students to acclimate themselves. Disabled people should have the same rights and access and groups like the American Disability Association make it possible legally for others to modify their sites or programs so they are entirely EVERY-user friendly (ADA 2009). There are also others fighting for the rights of disabled people to access the internet (Arch-online.org, 2009) While much work is being done in Second Life to acclimate people with disabilities, less attention has been paid to another kind of disability.

All that is needed to participate in Second Life is a good computer and a fast internet connection; however, there can be complications when using SL if your computer is not up to the task. In Second Life there are applications that can be used to help those hindered by "technological disabilities", as well as those who have actual physical problems. Another example of a technological aid for people with disabilities that can be used to help the “technologically disabled” is a virtual guide dog that helps the user navigate what can seem like chaotic world.

In an effort to add credibility to this paper I obtained a guide dog to experience disability. The guide dog helped to navigate the depths of SL which I could not with my slow and outdated computer. It helped me to read signs, find friends and in general help my daily Second Life. Others have done the same thing in SL, investigating blindness, deafness and even having tics like musculoskeletal disorders (Yellowless 2006). It was a new and frustrating experience to lack capabilities that I normally have control over. It felt like something was taken away from me that should have been natural, at least natural as functioning in a virtual world. I think in general it made me aware of the frustration of such limitations. Trying to work within a world where those with faster computers could function with ease. I found myself becoming very impatient and angry because I could not speak in voice chat, I could not read or see things that others could and I couldn’t navigate the land as well as others could. When visiting Wheelies I met others with disabilities, they were very helpful, and one individual even gave me a lesson on how to use my guide dog. I found that even when getting instructions from others it was hard to interact with them because my computer would not allow me to function as I wanted. I could not move quickly enough to dance; I could not run or fly because my graphic card could not keep up. In essence I felt very isolated both with my classmates and with people that I met in Wheelies. I felt as if I was the only one who could understand what I was up against and the only one who could understand what it was like to be in my position. No matter how people tried to help me it was difficult to communicate what exactly I was experiencing and what I needed.

The virtual guide dog helped me with many of these problems. It is a fascinating application; it helped me to read signs and described pictures which I could not see. It helped me maneuver around the island where our class is held, and helped me not to get lost in the ocean. The guide dog comes with its own instruction guide, and after reading it and having an open area in which to practice it was easy to master. It helped me to find where my classmates were meeting, as I had to walk and could not teleport because my internet connection was too slow. It was comforting knowing that despite my internet and computer I could still function within Second Life even in a limited fashion.

Second Life provides a platform for socialization but it also helps those who do not have the opportunity or functional capability to socialize in the real world by using their avatars to represent their true character, disabled people have found a new way to unite and have created organizations for support both in the RL and in SL. In using an application to simulate a virtual disability, I learned that that it is debilitating and frustrating to have to function in a world where anything is possible yet you are hindered by the technology that creates this world. Disability affects those in both RL and SL, but the world seems to be moving to a world where accessibility is possibility in any arena, virtual or real.

WORKS CITED

American Disability Association (2009). Retrieved April 16, 2009. http://www.adanet.org/

Arch-online.org. Disabled Peoples Rights to Web Access. Retrieved April 13 2009, http://arch-online.org/disability-internet-access-legal-rights.htm

Arneil, B. (2009, April). Disability, Self Image, and Modern Political Theory. Political Theory, 37(2), 218-242. Retrieved April 16, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database

Babiss, F. (2009, January). Heron Sanctuary. Occupational Therapy in Mental Health, 25(1), 1-3. Retrieved April 13, 2009, doi:10.1080/01642120802647709

Berger-Vachon, C. (2006, November). Virtual Reality and Disability. Technology & Disability, 18(4), 163-165. Retrieved April 13, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database.

Carter, William. (2008). Untangling the Web: Exploring Methods of Accessing Virtual Worlds. AFB Access World: Technology and People who are Blind or Visually Impaired. 9, 2.

Cassidy, Margaret. (2007). Flying with Disability in Second Life. Retrieved April 13 2009, from http://www.eurekastreet.com.au/article.aspx?aeid=2787

Collingwood, Sharon. (2009). Female Avatars Hail 'Second Life'. On the Issues. Retrieved April 13, 2009 from http://www.ontheissuesmagazine.com/2009winter/2009winter_4.php

Cromby, Standen, Brown, J, P, D (2007).The potentials of virtual environments in the education and training of people with learning disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 40, 489-501.

Folmer, Eelke. The Accessibility Game, Considerations When Creating Games for People with Disabilities. Game Developer. Pg 48. Retrieved April 13 2009, from http://www.lexisnexis.com.proxy.lib.ohio-state.edu/us/lnacademic/results/
docview/docview.do?docLinkInd=true&risb=21_T6299287304&format=
GNBFI&sort=RELEVANCE&startDocNo=1&resultsUrlKey=29_T6299287309&cisb
=22_T6299287308&treeMax=true&treeWidth=0&csi=254594&docNo=1

Herrera, G., Alcantud, F., Jordan, R., Blanquer, A., Labajo, G., & De Pablo, C. (2008). Development of symbolic play through the use of virtual reality tools in children with autistic spectrum disorders: Two case studies. Autism: The International Journal of Research & Practice, 12(2), 143-157. Retrieved April 13, 2009, doi:10.1177/1362361307086657

Kaye, H.S. (2000). Computer and Internet Use Among People with Disabilities. Disability Statistics Report(13). Washington DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation

Kratzer, Felix. (2007) 2 ndisability. Retrieved April 13, 2009 from http://2ndisability.blogspot.com/

Kuhlen, Dohle, T, C (2000). Virtual reality for physically disabled people. Retrieved April 13 2009. From Science Direct Website: http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T5N-3YF49BS10&_user=3366836&_rdoc=1&_
fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000058403&_version=1&_
urlVersion=0&_userid=3366836&md5=be94d692d996f24602d4ff03554fe15b

Lancaster, Sean. (2009). What is a disability?. U.S Department of education, Office of Special Education Programs. Retrieved April 16, 2009. http://das.kucrl.org/iam/studentdis.html#1

Mangan, K. (2008, January 11). Virtual Worlds Turn Therapeutic for Autistic Disorders. Chronicle of Higher Education, 54(18), A26-A26. Retrieved April 13, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database.

Paralysed man takes a walk in virtual world- Brainwaves used to control Second Life. 2008-06-30. Retrieved April 16, 2009.

Second Life is my Wheelchair. The Metaverse Journal, Sept 19 2008.Retrieved April 13, 2009, from
http://www.metaversejournal.com/2008/09/19/second-life-is-my-wheelchair/

Stein, Robert (2007). Real Hope in a Virtual World. The Washington Post. Retrieved April 13, 2009, from washingtonpost.com. < http://www.washingtonpost.com/
wp-dyn/content/article/2007/10/05/AR2007100502391.html?referrer=emailarticle>

Virtual Ability (2009). Retrieved April 13 2009. http://virtualability.org/sl_resources.aspx

Weiss, Patrice. (2003). Virtual Reality Provides Leisure Time Opportunities for Young Adults with Physical and Intellectual Disabilities. CyberPsychology and Behavior. 6, 335-344.

Wheeling in Second Life" - Video of "A person with cerebral palsy using second life with a headwand." Youtube. 2007-12-07. Retrieved April 16, 2009.

Yellowless, Peter. (2006). Living a Second Life- Virtual Online Worlds. The Economist. Retrieved April 13, 2009, from http://www.lexisnexis.com.proxy.lib.ohio-state.edu/us/lnacademic/results/docview/docview.do?docLinkInd=true&risb=21_T6299204523&format=GNBFI&sort=RELEVANCE&startDocNo=1&resultsUrlKey=29_T6299204527&cisb=22_T6299204526&treeMax=true&treeWidth=0&csi=7955&docNo=18

Minerva Events

EllieBrewster — Mon, 15 Jun 2009 17:40:26 CDT

CALL FOR PAPERS:
Virtual Praxis 2009: The Women's International Community in Second Life

A conference to be held on Minerva, the teaching and research space in Second Life maintained by The Department of Women’s Studies, Ohio State University. Saturday, November 21 - Sunday November 22, 2009.

In 2008 the first Virtual Praxis Conference was held on Minerva; academics, activists, librarians, artists and digital media professionals met to share their experiences in Second Life and to discuss the development of a new kind of women's community. This November, we hope to learn about international cooperation in our virtual world.

You are invited to submit an abstract (250 words maximum) for individual 20-minute presentations or panels on an aspect of international activism or cooperation by women in the Second Life community. Proposals will be selected with a view to giving a broad perspective of the advantages of a women's international community in Second Life. If you are working or have worked on a project in that has an international aspect, or if you are planning a project with an international perspective, please consider contributing to the conference.

Some suggested topics:

International perspectives on diversity
Women's health
Violence against women and children
Women and development
Women and the environment
Women and education
Women and work
Women and the arts

Please include contact information with your submission, as well as your time zone, and send to the address below. The deadline for submissions is September 1, 2009.

E-mail to:
Dr. Sharon Collingwood
Department of Women’s Studies
The Ohio State University
collingwood.7@osu.edu

Virtual Praxis: A Conference on Women’s Community in Second Life

Held on Minerva, the teaching and research space in Second Life maintained by The Department of Women’s Studies, Ohio State University, Saturday, November 15, 2008

As teachers, librarians, artists, health care workers, and as volunteers in the many charitable and activist organizations of Second Life, women are a very visible element of our virtual community. The number of women’s groups and community centers is increasing, supported by an informal network of committed individuals. Those who come here out of curiosity often find themselves involved in these community activities, and those who came for professional reasons often find that their interests have widened and diversified as they have come into contact with Second Life society. Is what we do here just relaxation, a metaphor for what we do in real life, or do our Second Life activities have importance for our home communities and for society in general?

Some of the papers given at this conference are archived here.

OSU Women's Studies exhibit at Second Life's 5th birthday celebration, June 23 - July 7, 2008.

Learn facts about women and work around the world, and how the many nonprofit organizations in the field of women and development are working to change women's lives.

Welcome to Minerva

EllieBrewster — Sun, 24 May 2009 15:47:05 CDT

Minerva is the teaching and research space maintained in Second Life by the Department of Women's Studies at The Ohio State University. Minerva is open to the public when classes are not in session, and our resource area on the island is always available. Student work is often showcased there, and other exhibits on women's issues are open on a rotating basis.

Please feel free to visit at any time. You must have the Second Life client installed on your computer to access the island; open the SL client on your computer, then use this link to get to Minerva. If your entry to parts of the island is blocked, this means that classes are in session. We don't mean to be rude; we're just busy. Contact Ellie Brewster through this site or within Second Life if you have questions about OSU Women's Studies in Second Life.

Minerva Island was created through a grant from the Office of Continuing Education at The Ohio State University

LINKS

EllieBrewster — Sun, 24 May 2009 11:34:54 CDT

Field trips in SL

EllieBrewster — Sun, 24 May 2009 11:17:16 CDT

There is no abstract available for this page revision.

Student journals

EllieBrewster — Sun, 24 May 2009 11:16:11 CDT

Emily Beerbaum (spring 2007)

Kenan Torok (spring 2007)

Feminist science fiction reading group

EllieBrewster — Sun, 24 May 2009 11:12:41 CDT

The Summer 2008 feminist science fiction reading group meets in Second Life at 11 am PST on Minerva. Here are the books we are reading this summer, as well as the dates we will be discussing them:

Marge Piercy, He She and It, Sunday, July 6
reading questions for Piercy

Suzette Hayden Elgin, Native Tongue, July 20
reading questions for Elgin

Octavia Butler, Dawn, Sunday, August 10
Kay Fowler has published some excellent reading questions for Dawn. Find them here.

Joan Slonczewski, A Door Into Ocean, Sunday, August 24
Look at Slonczewski's own webpage about this novel. We'll bounce our ideas off her study guide.

To get to Minerva, you must have the Second Life program installed on your computer. Open the program, and click on this link. We will be meeting under the large tree that overlooks the beach. Just click on one of the blue balls to find a seat. If there are too many of us, we will split into two groups, and one group will move to the picnic area at the other end of the beach. If you would like to review the reading questions before attending, click on the appropriate link, above.

Student Resources

EllieBrewster — Mon, 14 Jul 2008 11:55:23 CDT

COURSE ARCHIVE

Many of our former students have volunteered to have their work put in our archive on Minerva. Their papers are housed on a separate wiki, and connect to visual displays within Second Life which are mounted on a roatating basis. These are not necessarily "A" papers, but they do represent the student's best work. You may wish to build on what has gone before in this class by critiquing another student's paper, or you may wish to refer back to their arguments to support your own paper. If you use another student's work, please remember to cite it properly. Go to the "research" page on our Carmen site if you are unsure of the proper format.

To research the student archive from within Second Life, go to the Ada Lovelace Library and use the large terminal in the Sciences wing. To use the archive on the web, go to the "Gender in Second Life" site.

Teaching Resources

EllieBrewster — Mon, 14 Jul 2008 10:34:26 CDT

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

Ross Perkins at Virginia Tech has put together a very good video on the basics of teaching in Second Life. He also talks about what research is being done on teaching in virtual worlds, and how that research is being done.
http://filebox.vt.edu/users/rperkins/sl/player.html

CONTENT CREATION

There is a great deal of useful information on content creation on the Second Life Wiki. You can also learn a great deal watching Torley Linden's video tutorials

Scripting

You can put a code within an object to make it respond to avatars (give a notecard or object, speak a message, open a website, etc). Many free scripts are available at the ICT library in Second Life, but you can also make your own, using Squeak, a very easy program which can be downloaded free from this MIT site, or you can go to Ann Enigma's 3 Green Eggs and Ham site, which will create a simple script according to your specifications.

To learn more about scripting, go to to the LSL Scripting Portal maintained by Second Life. There are many forums with lots of helpful people - but expect to do the basic work before asking for help.

Farewell Sojourner

EllieBrewster — Sat, 12 Jul 2008 11:53:36 CDT

I met The Sojourner in 2006, during my first starry-eyed weeks in Second Life. I used to hang out a lot at Dreams/Shockproof, the island she founded for stroke survivors and those dealing with Asperger's / Autism.

Anybody could go there, take classes, and follow the free tutorials. Everyone felt welcome. The people there were nice, I loved the activities and contests that were always underway, and when I got the chance, I liked to talk to her. She was generous with her time.

A suvivor of stroke herself, The Sojourner worked tirelessly helping people to cope with their medical problems through participating in the creativity of Second Life. She was one of the early community builders, and she did it well. She knew that providing entertainment might bring people together, but she also saw that encouraging their participation was the key to maintaining social bonds. The building contests were amazing -- I particularly remember all those tree houses -- and the annual Dreams Fair was not to be missed.

Sojourner's recent death of heart failure brought an outpouring from the Second Life community, much of it to be found here. If you read the posts, you will be struck by how often people say that she created something solid and lasting in the community. If you're not a member of Second Life, this may strike you as odd, but if you have been there for a while, you'll understand.

Someone once said that in Second Life nobody ever dies, they just fail to show up. The outcry at the passing of The Sojourner demonstrates that for many of us, this is no longer true. A community is growing there, where kind deeds, whether in pixels or in atoms, have a real and enduring effect.

Elgin

EllieBrewster — Fri, 11 Jul 2008 11:50:40 CDT

We will be meeting on Minerva Island at 11am PDT on Sunday, July 20. I have added a discussion group on this site, for those who would like to continue the discussion after we finish.

We will conduct meetings in text chat, unless all members of the group agree otherwise. The format of the reading group is up to the members, but I have provided some reading questions below, and a video from You Tube that makes a thought-provoking contrast to the novel.

Suzette Haydin Elgin has her own page about Native Tongue, here. I have borrowed questions 6, 7. 12, and 16 to start us out, and added a couple of my own.

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1. Do you think this novel paints an impossible portrait of gender relations? In other words, do you think the males are painted as monsters?

2. The females in this novel live very restricted lives. How do they cope with this? How do they make their lives more bearable?

3. In the novel, women past childbearing age are sent to live apart from the rest of the community. Is this a punishment?

4. It has been suggested that the tubies (infants conceived in test tubes and nurtured until birth in artificial wombs of some kind) would be exactly like human beings born from human wombs -- except that they would not have souls. What is your opinion about that idea? Do we have enough information about human souls to discuss the question in any rational way? Is it a scientific question or a religious question, or both?

5. What is your opinion about the possibility that women in America could be declared legally minors, as happens in the book? Could that happen? Is it an impossibility? (Consider the situation of women in Afghanistan today; it hasn’t been so long ago that those women were doctors and lawyers and professors.) Could it happen without any need to use force? Would the fact that there are women in the U.S. armed forces make it more difficult? Have you seen anything in the news recently that’s relevant to this question (for example, reports of research claiming that women’s brains are significantly different from men’s)?

6. What do you think is the primary message of Native Tongue?

QUESTIONS ON LANGUAGE

First, watch this video:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JnylM1hI2jc

7. Susan Squier and Julie Vedder (in the afterword to the new Feminist Press edition of the book) identify three plot strands, which they describe on page 310 as follows: "The primary story follows the development of the woman-language Láadan by the women of the Linguist Lines... A parallel story line traces the U.S. government’s secret attempts to break the linguistic monopoly of the Lines by successfully learning...a non-humanoid alien language. A third narrative strand follows Michaela, a non-linguist, as she attempts to avenge her infant, who was killed in a state experiment to break the language monopoly; instead she finds surprising commonality with the linguist women." Do you agree that the story of the development of Láadan is the "primary" story? If not, which one do you feel is primary? Are there any other major plot strands in the novel besides the three in the quotation?

8. In the novel, the known universe is filled with many different languages, requiring translators and interpreters in order to get anything done. Would it be better to have just one universal language that could be used by everyone, regardless of what their native language might be? If so, how do you suppose the decision would be made as to which language should become the universal one? Would it be better to choose some existing natural language, some existing "artificial" language, or to construct a brand new artificial language for the purpose? How would people learn the universal language? What problems would arise if not everyone using the universal language were human or humanoid? Could there still be just one language, or would there have to be two or more?

Calendar

EllieBrewster — Wed, 02 Jul 2008 10:59:40 CDT

Piercy

EllieBrewster — Wed, 02 Jul 2008 09:57:22 CDT

He She and It, Reading Questions

We will be meeting on Minerva Island at 11am PDT on Sunday, July 6.

We will conduct meetings in text chat, unless all members of the group agree otherwise. The format of the reading group is up to the members. To start us off, I have posted some reading questions below, but there's no need to feel restricted to them. I also recommend Kay Fowler's list of questions from her 2005 course in Science Fiction at Ramapo College.

Reviews of this novel: http://www.margepiercy.com/main-pages/reviews.htm#12

QUESTIONS:

1. The novel tells two stories. One story begins in renaissance Prague, and the other begins fifty years from now. Simply put, what are the two stories about? How do they connect?

2. Compare Joseph and Yod.

3. The novel uses a rich background of Jewish culture and traditions. Why is this cultural content important for the meaning of the novel?

4. What is the role of corporate hierarchy in the novel?

5. Is there a gender hierarchy within the novel?

6. The nature/human hierarchy of the novel shows an Earth that has been sacrificed to human greed and competition. Although environmental destruction is a common theme in science fiction, is Piercy using it here to make a particular point about humans and nature? Can you think of examples?

7. As an avatar, can you easily visualize Shira's battles in cyberspace? If your human half had read this novel when it first came out in 1991, do you think he/she would have seen it differently? Are there characteristics of a virtual world that don't appear in the novel?

8. As a human, what augmentation have you undergone? Are all the life choices you make completely free, or are you "programmed" by your society?

9. Can we classify all of the following characters as human?

Yod - although a robot, he has emotions, judgment, and the ability to choose.
Shira - she is augmented, controlled by a hierarchy, and translates herself into cyberspace. As someone who was conceived after the death of her own father, is her "human" status in question?
Nili - She is well adjusted to her natural environment. Does this make her more "natural?"

10. What other examples of the "posthuman" can you see in Piercy's novel?

11. What does "Tikvah" mean? What does it mean for the novel?

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Here's a useful timeline taken from Kay Fowler's reading notes:

1543 Jews of Prague exiled
1599/1600 Time at the opening of the Joseph (Golem story)
1946 77,3987 Jews died in camps. Malkah's mother born in Cleveland, Ohio.
1987 Malkah born
2008 Malkah (age 22) in Prague; Visits Altneushul; love affair with professor; Riva conceived
2009 Riva born, daughter of Malkah and professor.
2011 First direct linking/interface to cyberspace
2013 Death of Yosef Golinken, physicist, grandfather of Nili, and posthumous father of Shira.
2022 Kisrami plague
2017 Two Week War (Nuclear/chemical/biological device destorys Jerusalem and surrounding region. Followed by "The Troubles." Anti-semitic persecution following the Two Week War which many have blamed on the Jews
2020s-2030s famine; ocean rising; desertification. 2 billion die from famine and plagues.
2029 Great Hurricane
2031 Assassination of Mohatela the Lion (Malkahís lover) from Johannesburg who has been trying to free Africa from European and Asian domination
2031 Shira born daughter of Riva and preserved sperm of Yosef Golinken
2040 Opposition to humanoid robots mounts. Cyberriots. No robots in human form thereafter (until Avramís' illegal experiments)
2044 Gadi and Shira Lovers; Avram creates Cyborg Alef who kills David, Avramís' assistant. Alef is destroyed.
2048 Shira breaks off with Gadi; goes to school in Europa.
2059 Time at the opening of the novel. Custody hearing re: Ari Shipman/Rogovin. Malkah 72; Shira 28; Yod (tenth of Avramís cyborgs) is 3.